Lake Erie giver drikkevand til flere mennesker end nogen anden, men algeblomster gør det giftigt

Hvert år, en eksplosion af mikroskopisk liv hersker over den vestlige Lake Erie, danner et grønt stykke alger og bakterier så massivt og levende, at det kan ses fra rummet.

Den skadelige algeopblomstring slimer fiskerbåde, maler strande i giftstoffer og opsluger vandindtagskrybber. I 2014, det efterlod 400, 000 mennesker uden drikkevand i tre dage, efter at toksiner infiltrerede Toledos vandsystem. Daværende regering. John Kasich erklærede undtagelsestilstand og opfordrede nationalgarden til at distribuere flaskevand i en hændelse, der viste, at drikkevand fra Erie -søen var i fare.

Dette år, blomstringen var blandt de mest alvorlige og giftige, siden videnskabsmænd begyndte at holde styr på det i begyndelsen af ​​2000'erne. På sit højeste, det dækkede omkring 620 kvadratkilometer af Lake Eries overfladevand, et område mere end dobbelt så stort som Chicago, ifølge satellitbilleder. Alene vægten af ​​blågrønne bakterier, der udgør blomstringen - forventes at være omkring 46, 000 tons - forventedes at være en ny rekord.

"Hvis du foretog en Google -billedsøgning efter" Toledo -vand, " hvad der ville dukke op er Toledo skyline, hvor Maumee-floden ligner Chicago-floden på (St. Patrick's Day), "Borgmester Wade Kapszukiewicz sagde." Den eneste forskel er, at vi ikke lagde noget farvestof i det. "

Klimaforandringerne bringer to af de mest værdifulde ressourcer i Midtvesten i fare:mad og vand, ifølge føderale undersøgelser. Større nedbør og kraftigere storme eroderer nogle af de rigeste jorder i USA og, derved, vask af blomstringsfremkaldende gødning fra landbrugsmarker til Lake Erie. Hyppigere voldsomme regnskyl overdøver også forældede kloaksystemer til tider, frigivelse af et væld af rå spildevand i vandveje, yderligere forurenende og forringende vandkvalitet.

I mellemtiden, varmere temperaturer gør det muligt for mikroberne i algeopblomstring - især de toksinproducerende bakterier - at blomstre i større antal og i flere måneder af året, udgør forhøjede og langvarige risici for drikkevand, dyreliv og turistindustrien på $ 15,1 milliarder langs Ohio's kystlinje.

De Store Søer er alle forbundet og rummer tilsammen 20% af verdens friske overfladevand, men hver sø har unikke egenskaber – dybde, form, størrelse og omgivelser - hvilket gør dem sårbare over for forskellige aspekter af klimaændringer.

Algeopblomstring forekommer årligt over hele regionen i lavvandet, beskyttede farvande som Saginaw Bay i Lake Huron og Green Bay i Lake Michigan. En stor algeopblomstring udviklede sig endda én gang i det normalt uberørte vand i Lake Superior nær Apostle-øerne, en varsel om, at intet miljø er immunt.

Faren er mest akut i Lake Erie - den laveste, den sydligste og varmeste af De Store Søer - som er en naturlig inkubator for disse kolonier af mikroorganismer.

Mens lande over hele kloden står over for tørke og vandusikkerhed, det er en bitter ironi, at nogle samfund, der sidder på kanten af ​​planetens største system af ferskvand - mere end 11 millioner mennesker er afhængige af Lake Erie for at drikke vand - er tvunget til at købe vand på flaske.

"Når befolkningen eksploderer, vand vil være den mest værdifulde ressource på planeten Jorden ved udgangen af ​​dette århundrede. Det repræsenterer derfor den største fordel, som denne del af landet har. Denne region - regionen Great Lakes, snebæltet, rustbæltet, uanset hvad du vil kalde det-har stået over for hårde tider i løbet af de sidste 50-60 år, " sagde Kapszukiewicz. "Men ... hvis vi kan holde fast, vi er måske den mest værdifulde del af landet. Ærligt talt, med det vi har, (Midtvesten) kunne være Saudi -Arabien om 100 år. Vi kan bare ikke sløse med det."

Milliarder af dollars er blevet brugt på at overvåge Lake Eries vandkvalitet, eftersyn af drikkevandsrensning og reducering af spildevand. Men den største bidragyder til disse opblomstringer - afstrømning fra landbruget, som er ansvarlig for op til 89% af fosfor, der strømmer ind i Lake Erie-forbliver stort set ureguleret.

"Mængden af ​​gødning fra grise, kyllinger og køer, der går ind i det vestlige bassin, der siver ubehandlet direkte ind i Lake Erie, svarer nogenlunde til alt menneskeligt affald fra byerne Chicago og Los Angeles tilsammen, " sagde Kapszukiewicz. "Det er bare hvor meget husdyrgødning der kommer ind ubehandlet - jeg taler ikke engang om, hvad de sprøjter på afgrøder. Det er derfor, vi lever i den verden, vi lever i."

Den 1, 500 kvadratkilometer omkring Maumee-floden var engang kendt som den store sorte sump, et marskland, der fostrede et væld af dyreliv og naturligt filtrerede næringsstoffer gennem planterødder.

Da europæiske bosættere ankom til det nordvestlige Ohio i begyndelsen af ​​1800-tallet, de tømte gradvist sumpen, omdanne det til landbrugsjord og introducere de husdyr, der ville producere en koncentreret kilde til gødning. Nærliggende byer blomstrede i størrelse, ikke kun at pumpe deres eget spildevand i floderne, men også tilsætning af fosfatvaskemidler, før de blev forbudt på landsplan i 1994.

I 60'erne og 70'erne, Lake Erie var så fyldt med næringsstofforurening, at den blev erklæret "død". I henhold til loven om rent vand, implementeret i 1972, USA har slået ned på kommunale spildevandsrensningsanlæg, industrielle forurenere og andre bidragydere. Og, for en stund, algeopblomstringen aftog.

I de sidste to årtier har imidlertid, blomstringen er vendt tilbage så stor som nogensinde.

Forskere siger, at Lake Erie historisk set har udstået skadelig algeopblomstring, men nutidens størrelse menes at være stigende som følge af menneskelige aktiviteter og klimaændringer.

Hvert år, as melting winter snowpack and spring rains cascade over the rural landscape of northwestern Ohio, a torrent of water flushes an unfathomable amount of manure and commercial fertilizer from farm fields into the Maumee River, a 137-mile waterway carrying waste from Fort Wayne, Indiana, to Toledo, and eventually flowing into the shallowest end of Erie. I mellemtiden, throughout the year, Detroit routinely pumps wastewater and sewage into its namesake river, as do other major metros.

These rivers become fuses as fecal-laden waters plunge into western Lake Erie. Nutrients—particularly phosphorus—trigger an eruption of microscopic algae, according to Chris Winslow, director of the Ohio Sea Grant, a research and education collaborative led by Ohio State University.

Just as humans need vitamins to grow, so does algae. Iron, potassium and nitrogen are essential and available in ample amounts. Human and animal excrement contain the missing ingredient:phosphorus.

"You bump up the phosphorus, and they are just waiting to capitalize off of it, " Winslow said.

An analysis of aerial photographs and state permit data identified 775 hog, cattle, dairy and poultry operations in the Maumee River watershed in Ohio, Indiana and Michigan in 2018—a 42% increase since 2005, according to a report by the Environmental Law and Policy Center and the Environmental Working Group, nonprofit advocacy groups. Of the large-scale "factory farms" in the watershed, more than a quarter had expanded since being built. Although the Maumee only contributes 5% of the water entering Lake Erie, it is so loaded with phosphorus that it is the main driver of the algae blooms.

The most potent form of phosphorus, unblended with soils, acts as a catalyst for blooms each year. The amount of this full-strength phosphorus has increased 140% since 1990. Some experts suspect this can be attributed to a change in farming practices, namely no-till farming—a technique intended to curb soil erosion, but one in which layers of manure piled on top of farmland are more easily carried away by heavy rains.

Winslow said other factors are also at play.

"We have zebra mussels in our lake filtering the water differently than 40 years ago, " he said. "We have larger farm operations. We have increased rainfall and runoff to take nutrients from the land into the water. We have warmer temperatures, and these organisms like warmer temperatures. Some of these things have more of an impact than others, but there's a lot of moving parts."

This fall, the Ohio countryside was a desolate mud pit marked by rampant weeds, standing water and stunted crops.

Over 880, 000 acres intended for corn and nearly 600, 000 acres for soybeans were left barren this year, as farmers opted to take insurance money rather than risk a meager harvest.

Ty Higgins, spokesman for the Ohio Farm Bureau, described rural Ohio this fall as the "end of the world."

Farmers, han sagde, can use drought-resistant corn. They can plant strains that perform better in heat. But there's no silver bullet for rain.

"That's one curveball Mother Nature can throw farmers that they don't have a workaround, " Higgins said.

Climatologists say the region has become soggier.

A spike in greenhouse gases, largely from man-made carbon emissions, has driven global temperatures upward, ifølge National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. For every degree of warming, the atmosphere can hold 4% more moisture, which can translate into heavier and more severe downpours.

Since 1951, the Great Lakes region has seen a 2.3 degree rise in temperatures, a 14% uptick in annual precipitation and a 35% increase in the most intense storms. I det forløbne år, the rain, snow and flooding across the Midwest was one for the record books.

Between September 2018 and August 2019, the Buckeye State endured the wettest 12 months on record since NOAA began keeping precipitation statistics in 1895.

Chris Weaver, 45, of Lyons, was one of the few who decided to plant this year—not that he had much of a choice. His family-owned dairy peddles three commodities:milk, meat and manure. With 3, 000 cows on one farm in Williams County, his employees work around the clock corralling cattle into milking stalls. He depends on 5, 000 acres of cropland for feed.

And each fall, Weaver draws from a manure pond the size of a football field to fertilize his land.

Manure, some might argue, is the greatest commodity for farmers with livestock. Not only does it benefit crop growth, the excess can be sold. Weaver charges about $400 to cover an acre.

"Grandpa always told me, "It smells like money to me, "" said Higgins, the farm bureau spokesman.

In the fall of 2018, because of the onslaught of rain, most farmers didn't get a chance to put fertilizer down. Those who did witnessed that money carried downstream in this year's spring rains.

It wasn't until July 1, about two months later than normal, that Weaver was able to get most of his corn, soybean and alfalfa crops in the ground. Weaver had some reserves to feed his cattle but not enough to make it a whole year without a harvest.

He was still anxiously monitoring the weather throughout the fall, praying there wouldn't be an early frost. He managed to reap his corn by mid-October while his soybeans withstood several inches of snow in November. The harvest, han sagde, would be enough to make it without buying reserves.

"It has to be a one-off, " Weaver said, almost as if trying to convince himself. "We've had a lot of wetter years. But if it happens again next year, I'm going to really be scratching my head about what I'm doing.

"It's hard to imagine, " han sagde, with his voice trailing off. If July 1 became the start of planting season, "I don't think we'd ever have corn here ever again."

In addition to sweeping manure and commercial fertilizer into waterways, the rain turns soil into claylike mud that prevents oxygen from reaching crop roots, killing the plants. Soggy soil also makes the land harder to tend, because large farms require heavy machinery, including tractors, prone to getting stuck in the muck.

Some farmers plant cover crops, such as peas and oats, in the fall to help absorb moisture from saturated soils and hold the nutrients from fertilizer in place. Problemet er, these crops don't offer much of a return on investment. Og, at the end of the day, farming is a business.

Weaver, imidlertid, sees other benefits beyond the monetary value. His in-laws live in the Toledo area and go camping each year near the lakeshore. It's also where he goes walleye fishing.

"Overall it's something where maybe I'm breaking even, but I'm doing something to help the environment, " Weaver said. "I think every farmer is recognizing that (cities like Toledo) are affected, that they have to do better.

"We're only an hour from Lake Erie, so it's our backyard too."

But Weaver is in the minority. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, cover crops were used on less than 10% of cropland in Ohio in 2017.

Downstream, the Toledo area braces each year for verdant, bacteria-choked waters, no-swim advisories at beaches and noxious odors from scummy bays.

The morning of Saturday, Aug. 2, 2014, Crystal Jankowski, nearly nine months pregnant, awoke before dawn and noticed a number of missed calls from family members. Jankowski, whose father was ailing from liver and kidney failure, feared grim news about his condition.

I stedet, Jankowski was jolted by ominous instructions from her mother:"Tell Josh to go find water—now! There's something wrong with the water."

More than 400, 000 people and hundreds of businesses adjacent to the world's 13th largest lake suddenly found themselves without potable water.

The culprit was Microcystis aeruginosa, a blue-green cyanobacteria known to create a toxin more lethal than cyanide or antifreeze. Its poison, which can cause liver failure, was so efficient at killing animals that scientists originally termed it "fast death factor." In one of the most deadly episodes, more than 50 people died in Brazil in 1996 when hospital patients were exposed to unfiltered water containing the toxin. Scientists say no deaths attributed to these toxins have been reported in the U.S.

In Toledo, the bloom had drifted from Maumee Bay and engulfed the city's water intake 3 miles offshore and then stalled, leaving the neon green bloom to linger for days.

At the treatment plant, a lab test showed an alarming result:The drinking water had been compromised.

Following the historic shutdown, Ohioans went on a maddening search for water, many crossing state lines.

Josh Jankowski moved through the crush of people rummaging barren grocery store aisles. Nearly three hours later, he returned with a package of baby wipes and a bottle of Pedialyte.

Not long after that, Crystal Jankowski began having contractions. The couple rushed to the hospital, where the emergency room was abnormally busy for a Saturday morning.

"Everyone thought they were sick. They had woken up, drank their coffee, took a shower. And then the morning news told people not to drink the water, og, if you did, here are the symptoms, " hun sagde.

Nurses told Crystal Jankowski to go home. She wasn't ready to give birth, but even if she had been, the hospital was not accepting some patients for surgery because it didn't have access to sterile water.

"It was just scary. Nothing prepared you for this, " hun sagde.

The National Guard arrived to distribute one case of water per family, but fights broke out in the parking lot. Social media was filled with people describing futile searches for water.

"It brought out the best and worst of human nature at the same time, " Kapszukiewicz, the mayor, sagde. "There was a lot of generosity:neighbors helping neighbors, a sort of charitable spirit, a lot of volunteerism. But it also produced a sort of ghoulish (behavior). Convenience stores were quickly out of water all of a sudden. The price of bottled water spiked unnaturally at other stores. It was a traumatic event for the community, and five years later we're still dealing with the aftershocks of it."

With her contractions still far apart, Crystal Jankowski and her husband drove 40 miles to a friend's house and filled coolers, jugs and other containers with water.

They delivered them to friends and family members, then Josh Jankowski boiled some water and drew his wife a lukewarm bath. Both went to sleep hoping the crisis would be resolved before their daughter was due.

The next afternoon, moments before Crystal Jankowski returned to the hospital, Toledo officials announced the drinking water was safe.

But even after 12 hours of labor and complications from bleeding, the water was still foremost in Crystal Jankowski's mind.

"I was a big bubble of paranoia, " Crystal Jankowski, 31, sagde. "All these things were going through my head. Did the doctor wash his hands with old water? Are they covered in toxins now? I wasn't intending to breastfeed, but I did. Because you need to mix the formula with water, and I didn't know where they were getting their water.

"As a mom, it makes me want to cry, " Jankowski said, her voice quavering with emotion. "Every mother should enjoy the first time they hold their child. They shouldn't be stressing about whether there are toxins in the water."

Lake Erie's noteworthy green tinge is the result of a medley of algae and bacteria. Phytoplankton, a microscopic green algae, is food for small organisms. Cyanobacteria, sometimes called blue-green algae, is actually an aquatic bacteria that captures sunlight for energy and produces oxygen like regular algae, but some also produce toxins that are harmful to humans and animals.

Microcystis aeruginosa is the most prevalent cyanobacteria found in Lake Erie. But it is just one of roughly a dozen that have collectively staked a larger claim since the introduction of invasive zebra and quagga mussels in the 1980s.

The fingernail-size shellfish filter copious amounts of water, ravenously eating the beneficial green algae and plankton that feed fish. The mussels don't consume the cyanobacteria, hvilken, på tur, allows it to increasingly dominate the bloom.

While every type of cyanobacteria doesn't create toxins, it's clear that Lake Erie's annual bloom is becoming progressively more toxic. Siden 2014 har federal, state and local agencies have conducted routine water sampling for toxins, with 2019 being among the years when it was most severe.

Scientists are continuing to find new harmful substances produced by cyanobacteria, though they don't fully understand why these bacteria secrete them.

Researchers have theories. Some believe the cyanobacteria are producing toxins to kill a perceived competitor. Others believe that the bacteria cells produce toxins as nourishment when they are stressed. There is also evidence that links toxin production to the levels of nitrogen (an abundant nutrient also found in excrement) in the water.

No matter the reason, residents of Toledo remain on high alert.

Since the crisis, the Jankowskis store more than a dozen jugs of water in the basement. They've had a $3, 000 water filtration system installed for their shower and sinks. And they don't drink from the tap.

Mayor Kapszukiewicz is trying to erase these kinds of fears. Elected three years after the water crisis, he tries to drink tap water in public whenever possible. He kept the pressure on suburban communities that threatened to bolt the Toledo water system, which would have been a significant financial loss for the city. And his administration created an online dashboard showing the safety of drinking water that he intends to retire because it has never dropped below the "Safe" threshold.

There are no federal regulations on the amount of cyanobacteria toxins that can be in drinking water. Men, in the aftermath of August 2014, the Collins Park water treatment plant quadrupled its capacity for carbon activated powder and chlorine, chemicals used to remove these toxins.

Toledo also accelerated the construction timeline for a new form of water treatment using ozone, a technique that is much more efficient at destroying cyanobacteria toxins. Since the 2014 crisis, the city has also vowed to find an alternative water source.

Before 2014, it could take as long as 12 hours to get test results on water quality. Nu, a network of buoys is the first line of defense and produces results almost immediately.

The buoys are equipped with underwater cameras that measure cloudiness and pigment, which signals the severity of the bloom and toxins, according to Ed Verhamme, a coastal engineer for LimnoTech, an environmental consulting firm.

"An entire day can go by and you only have an opportunity to look at two samples, " Verhamme said, referring to the former testing method. "That's why buoys are so important because every 10 minutes they give you a proxy for intensity of the bloom."

Applying chlorine, a chemical commonly used in water treatment, to water with large amounts of organic matter like algae can result in disinfection byproducts. The long-term health implications from consuming these substances are unclear. Research has linked some to an increased risk of certain cancers and miscarriage.

The new treatment is scheduled to go online August 2020 and should curb the amount of these incidental byproducts.

The adjustments that have been made and overhauls to come are unlikely to change things for Markie Miller, an activist for Toledoans for Safe Water, who has lived near Lake Erie her entire life. In the five years since the water ban, Miller, 30, said every summer is marked by caution and paranoia.

At the height of harmful algae blooms, many people will only drink bottled water. Drinking Toledo tap water has been compared to swallowing swimming pool water because of the pungent taste of residual chlorine. At local restaurants, complimentary glasses of water go untouched. Many of Miller's friends don't order coffee or other beverages that might require tap water as the base. And when using her Brita water filter, Miller sometimes will pour out an entire pitcher because she thinks the purified water still has a strange taste.

Even after amassing an encyclopedic knowledge of local water issues, Miller sometimes finds it hard to distinguish between a justifiable concern and a manifestation of her fears.

"The people at the water treatment plant are always ready to tell you that they are ready with an arsenal of chemicals, that we're prepared for another 2014. But I'm like, is this just as bad as ingesting toxins? Is it worse? I don't know. It does make you nervous, " Miller said. "I've done dishes to the point where my hands turn red, and I stop and think, "Is this all in my head? Am I freaking myself out because I know too much about this?" After a while, it gets to you."

But this mindset is ingrained in local culture. At the height of summer, when most coastal communities flock to the beach, the beaches in western Lake Erie are deserted.

Many coastal areas are marked by signs with ominous advice:"Avoid swallowing lake water." In some instances, the state Department of Health ordered people not to even touch the water, given certain levels of toxins can cause rashes and burns.

"I know growing up here in this area every year, we would go up north to enjoy the beach in Lake Huron. It wasn't until I reached adulthood that I realized how close we lived to Lake Erie or that it was our source of drinking water, " Miller said.

"When people say they're going to the beach, your first response is "Well, where are you going?""

The algae blooms have even become popularized in a green beer, "Alegae Bloom, " served in a can with comic book-like art depicting a green swamp creature emerging from the water.

Dette år, on the fifth anniversary of the water crisis, Miller and other activists went to Maumee Bay State Park. The weather was beautiful. It was sunny and bright. But the water was a radiant green, and there was nobody at the beach.

Other communities should take heed of what is occurring in Lake Erie, environmentalists say. These same cyanobacteria capable of creating toxins are found in ponds, floder, lakes and oceans across the world—and with climate change, conditions are more conducive to their growth.

"Generelt, many of us have the view that these organisms can be world travelers, " said Greg Dick, a researcher at the University of Michigan who studies cyanobacteria. "They can travel across continents. There is some evidence they can be aerosolized in little droplets and clouds. They can get up in the jet stream.

"We have this saying when it comes to microbes:Everything is everywhere, and then the environment selects."

The southern end of Lake Michigan is an unlikely home for sizable blooms, due in part to the reversing of the Chicago River, a historic feat that sends much of Chicago's waste into the Mississippi River basin, contributing to the bloom in the Gulf of Mexico instead of Lake Michigan.

Treating for toxins is a palliative approach, according to environmental advocates.

The broader issue with algae and bacteria blooms traces to phosphorus pollution. Since 2011, former Gov. Kasich spent more than $3 billion on Erie's algae blooms, most of which went toward curbing sewage overflows from wastewater treatment plants and upgrading drinking water facilities.

Imidlertid, in any given year, urban and suburban wastewater only contributes about 9% of the phosphorus flowing into western Lake Erie, at most. These wastewater treatment plants are regulated by the Clean Water Act, and Detroit's—the watershed's largest—has curtailed its phosphorus pollution by more than 51% since 2008.

Agricultural runoff, på den anden side, is responsible for as much as 89% and is not regulated under the Clean Water Act. I 2015, the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, a binational pact between the U.S. and Canada, established a goal of slashing phosphorus pollution into western Erie by 20% by 2020, a mark that experts say will surely be missed.

Ohio's Republican-controlled state legislature has prohibited farmers from spreading manure under certain conditions, such as ahead of a rain forecast or when soil is too saturated. Farmers who want to fertilize more than 50 acres are also required to be certified on best practices. But the majority of legislative and executive proposals have been voluntary.

Higgins, the farm bureau spokesman, said it would be rash to implement stricter regulations for farmers.

"Every farmer is different, " he said. "Whether it's their soil type, their topography, their equipment—it's not a one-size-fits-all solution. That would be easy if we just said, "Every farmer do this." There's 50 different ways to skin this problem."

Sidste år, most farmers didn't fertilize, because of the rainy weather. But this spring's phosphorus pollution was the second highest since a team of government and university researchers began forecasting the bloom in 2002. Farmers say this absolves them and illustrates there are other sources that need to be investigated.

Imidlertid, scientists who study the blooms say this is only confirmation that farm fields have been so overfertilized that residual fertilizer from previous years is continuing to contribute to the problem.

Considering the amount of phosphorus entering Lake Erie has held steady, Kapszukiewicz says, state efforts simply haven't been enough. And those most affected by the fallout continue to be frustrated because the issue is out of their control.

"The state of Ohio has been pretty good at providing carrots, " Kapszukiewicz said. "It has been horrible at offering sticks. Carrots are good. Kasich spent $3 billion worth of carrots. The legislature gave us another $172 million worth of carrots this year. But all the carrots in the world aren't going to fix this problem without a stick."

A band of Toledoans petitioned to put a referendum on the February ballot that would create a Lake Erie Bill of Rights, a designation to grant the lake the same rights as a person. It would also allow environmentalists to sue on behalf of the lake.

It passed with 61% of voter support. Derefter, just as quickly as it was adopted, it was nixed by the legislature, which prohibited legal actions on "behalf of nature or an ecosystem."

In a flurry of recent litigation in federal court, local communities and environmental groups are seeking a cap on the daily amount of nutrient pollution that can enter western Lake Erie. Under the Clean Water Act, any body of water deemed impaired needs to have a federally enforceable plan to remedy its degraded status.

The Ohio EPA had already deemed western Lake Erie impaired but designated it a low priority, which brought on another lawsuit calling for the federal government to force the state to take action.

But locals like Markie Miller already knew that Lake Erie is impaired. For dem, the designation was simply semantics; they want progress.

"It's like, if this has been a problem for so long, why haven't we taken action before?" Miller said. "Why wasn't it until it hit our kitchen sinks that we started going, 'Maybe we need to solve this problem?'"

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